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dyslexia [2026/05/20 19:36] – [Table] Scott Larsondyslexia [2026/05/20 20:51] (current) – Scott Larson
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 ====== Dyslexia ====== ====== Dyslexia ======
-FIXME+A primary reading disorder resulting from a written word processing abnormality in the brain, characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent sight word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties are unexpected in relation to the child's other cognitive skills.  
 +====Key features=== 
 +  * Neurobiological basis: Most individuals with dyslexia have a deficit in processing the sound structure of language (phonemic deficit), despite relatively intact overall language abilities. Functional MRI and PET studies demonstrate that dyslexia involves dysfunction in left-hemisphere posterior reading systems, with compensatory use of other brain regions.  
 +  * Genetic component: Approximately 40% of siblings, children, or parents of an affected individual will have dyslexia, with a strong genetic basis confirmed by genetic-linkage studies.  
 +  * Prevalence: Approximately 80% of people with learning disabilities have dyslexia, affecting an estimated 5–17.5% of the population. It occurs across all intelligence levels and throughout the world, and appears to affect boys more than girls.  
 +  * Common misconception: The definition of dyslexia does not include reversal of letters or words, or mirror reading or writing  
 +  * Not a vision problem: Dyslexia is a language-based disorder, not a visual one. It should be separated from secondary reading difficulties caused by visual or hearing disorders, intellectual disability, or inadequate instruction.  
 +[[https://www.aao.org/education/clinical-statement/joint-statement-learning-disabilities-dyslexia-vis| Joint Statement: Learning Disabilities, Dyslexia and Vision.  AAO & AAP]] 
 +====DSM-5 Classification==== 
 +Dyslexia an alternative term for specific learning disorder with impairment in reading (code F81.0), a neurodevelopmental disorder with a biological origin involving genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors.  
 +The diagnostic criteria require persistent difficulties in key academic skills (for at least 6 months despite intervention), performance substantially below age expectations, onset during school years, and exclusion of other causes such as intellectual disability, uncorrected sensory deficits, or inadequate instruction 
 +  * Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. American Psychiatric Association (2022). 2022. Dilip V. Jeste, Jeffrey A. Lieberman, David Fassler, et al.  
 ====Testing of Reading Skills==== ====Testing of Reading Skills====
-===Assessing Reading Performance=== 
 ^ Relevant Reading Area   ^ Specific Assessments that may be used                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     ^ Examples of Tasks                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             ^ ^ Relevant Reading Area   ^ Specific Assessments that may be used                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     ^ Examples of Tasks                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             ^
 | Letter-sound knowledge  | Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement (Word Attack, Spelling of Sounds)\\ Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, 3rd ed. (Letter Naming Facility, Letter Checklist)\\ Process Assessment of the Learner, 2nd ed. (Letters)\\ Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, 3rd ed. (Naming Letters, Letter-Sound Correspondence)                                                                                                                                                                                                             | Identify individual letters\\ Produce sounds for a small set of single letters\\ Pronounce nonsense words of increasing complexity\\ Write single letters and letter patterns presented orally\\ Spell nonsense words                                                                                                                                                                                                         | | Letter-sound knowledge  | Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement (Word Attack, Spelling of Sounds)\\ Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, 3rd ed. (Letter Naming Facility, Letter Checklist)\\ Process Assessment of the Learner, 2nd ed. (Letters)\\ Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, 3rd ed. (Naming Letters, Letter-Sound Correspondence)                                                                                                                                                                                                             | Identify individual letters\\ Produce sounds for a small set of single letters\\ Pronounce nonsense words of increasing complexity\\ Write single letters and letter patterns presented orally\\ Spell nonsense words                                                                                                                                                                                                         |
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 | Spelling (encoding)     | Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement (Spelling)\\ Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, 3rd ed. (Spelling)\\ Process Assessment of the Learner, 2nd ed. (Word Choice)\\ Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, 3rd ed. (Spelling)                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   | Write single letters and spell words that are dictated\\ Choose the correctly spelled word among a group of four words (three of which are misspelled)                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        | | Spelling (encoding)     | Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement (Spelling)\\ Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, 3rd ed. (Spelling)\\ Process Assessment of the Learner, 2nd ed. (Word Choice)\\ Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, 3rd ed. (Spelling)                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   | Write single letters and spell words that are dictated\\ Choose the correctly spelled word among a group of four words (three of which are misspelled)                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        |
 | Reading Comprehension   | Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement (Passage Comprehension, Reading Recall, Reading Vocabulary)\\ Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, 3rd ed. (Reading Comprehension)\\ Process Assessment of the Learner, 2nd ed. (Does It Fit?, Sentence Sense Accuracy score; Sentence Structure)\\ Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, 3rd ed. (Reading Comprehension)                                                                                                                                                                    | Read a passage silently and answer questions based on the passage (passage may or may not be visible to the student when answering questions)\\ Read a passage with a word or phrase missing, provide the missing word(s)\\ Silently read three sentences\\ One correct and two that contain a silly word that makes the sentence illogical (e.g., “The boy cames [sic] home late”) and circle the sentence that makes sense  | | Reading Comprehension   | Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement (Passage Comprehension, Reading Recall, Reading Vocabulary)\\ Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, 3rd ed. (Reading Comprehension)\\ Process Assessment of the Learner, 2nd ed. (Does It Fit?, Sentence Sense Accuracy score; Sentence Structure)\\ Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, 3rd ed. (Reading Comprehension)                                                                                                                                                                    | Read a passage silently and answer questions based on the passage (passage may or may not be visible to the student when answering questions)\\ Read a passage with a word or phrase missing, provide the missing word(s)\\ Silently read three sentences\\ One correct and two that contain a silly word that makes the sentence illogical (e.g., “The boy cames [sic] home late”) and circle the sentence that makes sense  |
- +[[https://www.readingrockets.org/topics/assessment-and-evaluation/articles/dyslexia-schools-assessment-and-identification|Dyslexia Testing in Schools:Assessment and Identification by Jennifer Lindstrom, Associate Professor for Communication Sciences and Special Education, University of Georgia]] 
-  * Letter-sound knowledge + 
-    * Can identify individual letters +
-    * Produce sounds that appropriately represent letters +
-    * Pronunciation  +
-    * Write single letters and letter patterns +
-    * Can spell nonsense words  +
-  * Word decoding +
-    * Reading lists of words +
-    * Reading lists of nonsense words +
-  * Reading fluency- reading efficiency and comprehension +
-    * Silently read simple sentences and indicate if they are true or false +
-    * Read an oral passage as quickly as possible +
-    * Read orally a list of single words or nonsense words (timed) +
-  * Spelling (encoding) +
-    * Write single letters and spell words that are dictated +
-    * Choose the correctly spelled word from a group of 4, three of which are misspelled +
-  * Reading Comprehension +
-    * Read a passage silently and answer questions based on the passage (passage may or may not be visible to the student when answering questions) +
-    * Read a passage with a word or phrase missing, provide the missing word(s) +
-    * Silently read three sentences +
-      * One correct and two that contain a silly word that makes the sentence illogical (e.g., “The boy cames [sic] home late”) and circle the sentence that makes sense +
-===Validated Testing Tools=== +
-  * Letter-sound knowledge +
-    * Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement (Word Attack, Spelling of Sounds) +
-    * Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, 3rd ed. (Letter Naming Facility, Letter Checklist) +
-    * Process Assessment of the Learner, 2nd ed. (Letters) +
-    * Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, 3rd ed. (Naming Letters, Letter-Sound Correspondence) +
-  * Word Decoding  +
-    * Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement (Letter- Word Identification) +
-    * Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, 3rd ed. (Letter and Word Naming) +
-    * Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, 3rd ed. (Word Reading) +
-  * Reading Fluency  +
-    * Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement (Oral Reading, Sentence Reading Fluency) +
-    * Test of Word Reading Efficiency–2 (Sight Word Efficiency, Phonemic Decoding Efficiency) +
-    * Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, 3rd ed. (Word Recognition Fluency) +
-    * Decoding Fluency +
-    * Silent Reading Fluency +
-    * Process Assessment of the Learner, 2nd ed. (RAN-Words, Morphological Decoding Fluency, Sentence Sense) +
-    * Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, 3rd ed. (Oral Reading Fluency) +
-    * Gray Oral Reading Tests, 5th ed. (Rate, Fluency) +
-  * Spelling +
-    * Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement (Spelling) +
-    * Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, 3rd ed. (Spelling) +
-    * Process Assessment of the Learner, 2nd ed. (Word Choice) +
-    * Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, 3rd ed. (Spelling) +
-  * Reading Comprehension +
-    * Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement (Passage Comprehension, Reading Recall, Reading Vocabulary) +
-    * Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, 3rd ed. (Reading Comprehension) +
-    * Process Assessment of the Learner, 2nd ed. (Does It Fit?, Sentence Sense Accuracy score; Sentence Structure) +
-    * Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, 3rd ed. (Reading Comprehension)+
 ====Testing of Cognitive Skills==== ====Testing of Cognitive Skills====
  
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 | Working Memory            | Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Oral Language (Retrieval Fluency, Understanding Directions)\\ Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Cognitive Ability (Object–Number Sequencing)                                                                                                                                | Name as many animals as you can in 1 minute\\ Listen to the following sequence: cat, 7, 2, dog. What was the second number?                                                                                                                                    | | Working Memory            | Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Oral Language (Retrieval Fluency, Understanding Directions)\\ Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Cognitive Ability (Object–Number Sequencing)                                                                                                                                | Name as many animals as you can in 1 minute\\ Listen to the following sequence: cat, 7, 2, dog. What was the second number?                                                                                                                                    |
  
-[[https://www.readingrockets.org/topics/assessment-and-evaluation/articles/dyslexia-schools-assessment-and-identification| Reference for Dyslexia Testing in Schools by Jennifer Lindstrom, Associate Professor for Communication Sciences and Special Education, University of Georgia]]+[[https://www.readingrockets.org/topics/assessment-and-evaluation/articles/dyslexia-schools-assessment-and-identification|Dyslexia Testing in Schools:Assessment and Identification by Jennifer Lindstrom, Associate Professor for Communication Sciences and Special Education, University of Georgia]] 
 + 
 +====Treatment==== 
 +  * Most students with dyslexia require highly structured, intensive, individualized instruction by a teacher or educational therapist trained in teaching the application of phonics. 
 +  * Systematic phonics instruction results in more favorable outcomes for readers with disabilities than does a context-emphasis (whole language) approach. 
 +  * The critical elements of effective intervention include individualization, feedback and guidance, ongoing assessment, and regular ongoing practice. 
 +  * Remediation programs should include  
 +    * Instruction in decoding, fluency training, vocabulary, and comprehension. 
 +    * Instruction in recognizing spoken sounds (phonemic awareness), becoming aware of rhyme, learning the alphabetic code, memorizing sight words, and studying phonics and spelling. 
 +    * A child must first accurately decode a word before it can be read fluently. 
 +    * The home is the ideal setting for practice and reinforcement.  
 +    * The child should read aloud to a parent or tutor each day to practice decoding, memorize new sight words, and develop greater fluency by rereading of previously decoded and memorized words. 
 +    * Techniques that enhance active reading comprehension include prediction, summarization, visualization, clarification, critical thinking, making inferences, and drawing conclusions. 
 +    * People with dyslexia have a persistent problem and continue to have slower reading throughout their lives, accommodations and modifications may be necessary in addition to remediation. 
 +    * Examples of accommodations: extra time, shortened assignments, a separate quiet room for taking tests, testing alternatives, computers, spell checkers, tape recorders, lecture notes, recorded books, and tutors. 
 +[[https://www.aao.org/education/clinical-statement/joint-statement-learning-disabilities-dyslexia-vis| Joint Statement: Learning Disabilities, Dyslexia and Vision.  AAO & AAP]]